Nursing Jurisprudence Essay Example

Nursing Jurisprudence Essay LEGAL ETHICAL issues in Nursing Nursing Etiquette concerned with moral principle governing the conduct of nurses towards patients, physicians, colleagues, the nursing profession and public Ethics part of philosophy that deals with systematic approaches to questions of morality a term for the study of how we make judgments regarding right and wrong a system of MORAL PRINCIPLES or moral standards governing conduct Moral human conduct in the application of ethics Concerned with JUDGMENT PRINCIPLES of right and wrong in relation to human actions and character Determinants of the Morality of Human Act †¢The OBJECT †¢The END †¢The CIRCUMSTANCES Ethical Principles Ethical Principles: INVIOLABILITY OF LIFE All human life, from the moment of conception and through all subsequent stages, is SACRED! No one can violate or destroy life! 8 ETHICAL DILEMMAS 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. ARTIFICIAL INSEMINATION IN VITRO FERTILIZATION HUMAN CLONING CONTRACEPTION ABORTION EUTHANASIA PHYSICIA N ASSISTED SUICIDE HUMAN TRANSPLANTATION 9 Argument favoring Euthanasia: compassion for the patient and shortening the period of suffering of the patient Argument disapproving Euthanasia: it is intrinsically wrong since it rejects life. 10 STEWARDSHIP Man has DOMINION over God’s creation: himself (life and health), creatures and environment One should reasonably, responsibly and respectfully benefit from them for service NOT domination TOTALITY Parts are integral, destined to be part of and subordinate to a whole SOLIDARITY One to be with others; to have a unity of interest, responsibility or goal. Based on the common good, love of neighbor, preferential for the most proximate and most need SUBSIDIARITY Every creature should be entrusted with the functions he is capable of performing. It relates to human dignity and recognize persons as free and responsible agents able to care and make decisions for them AUTONOMY Self Governance/Self Rule Having the freedom to make choices 4 Basic Elements of Autonomy 1. Respect for Autonomous Person 2. Ability to determine personal goals 3. Capacity to decide 4. Has Freedom to Act CONFIDENTIALITY Requires non-disclosure of private or secret information Confidentiality of Information ? Privileged communication ? Based on trust Revealed when: a. We will write a custom essay sample on Nursing Jurisprudence specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Nursing Jurisprudence specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Nursing Jurisprudence specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer The patient permits such revelation. b. Medico-legal cases/legal proceedings c. Communicable disease /public safety may be jeopardized. d. Continuity of care JUSTICE refers to the obligation to be fair to other people. Types: 1. distributive justice- fair distribution of responsibilities 2. criminal justice- penalty proportionate to crime 3. rectificatory justice- just compensation in civil law Distributive Justice To each equally. To each according to need. To each according to merit. To each according to person’s right. To each according to individual effort. To each as you would have done by. To each according to the greatest good to a greater number Double Effect Principle When an act has both good and bad effects, it is permissible if: 1) The direct freely chosen effect is morally good and the indirect foreseen but not desired may be harmful, 2) The action/object must not be evil, 3) The foreseen beneficial effect must be greater or equal to the foreseen evil effect 4) The beneficial effect must follow directly from the action or at least as immediate as the harmful effect BENEFICENCE- means to do good and not to do harm. NON- MALEFICENCE- one ought not to inflict evil or harm. 22 FIDELITY- refers to the obligation to be faithful to the agreements, commitments and responsibilities that one has made to oneself and others VERACITY- refers to telling the truth or not intentionally deceiving or misleading patients 23 RESPECT- treat all human beings as persons with rights SHARING AND ALLOCATION OF RESOURCESwho will receive particular scarce resources. 24 NURSING ETHICS ? All principles of right conduct in the practice of nursing ? Appraisal of rightness or wrongness of an act BIO–ETHICS Specific domain of ethics †¢ Systemic study of human behavior in the field of life science and health care in the light of moral values and principles Code of Nursing Ethics †¢ respect for human dignity †¢ safeguards the client’s right to privacy †¢ safeguard client and public †¢ assumes responsibility and accountability for own actions and judgments †¢ maintains competence in nur sing †¢ uses informed judgment, competence and qualifications in accepting responsibilities and delegating nursing activities †¢ Contributes to the development of the profession’s body of knowledge implement and improve standards of care †¢ establish and maintain conditions of employment conducive to high-quality nursing care †¢ protect the public from misinformation and misrepresentation and to maintain the integrity of nursing †¢ In collaboration with other allied health team members, meet the health care needs of the public Patient’s Bill of Rights The patient has the right to: 1) considerate and respectful care. 2) relevant, current, and understandable information concerning diagnosis, treatment, and prognosis. ) make decisions regarding his plan of care; in case of refusal, he is entitled to other appropriate care and service or to be transferred to another hospital. 4) Have advance directive (such as living will) concerning treatment or d esignating a surrogate decision maker. 5) Every consideration of his privacy such as in case discussion, consultation and treatment. 6) Confidentiality of communication and records 7) Review his records concerning his medical care and have these explained to him except when restricted by law. ) Expect that within its capacity and policies, a hospital will make reasonable response to the request of a patient for appropriate and medically indicated care and services. 9) Be informed of business relationship among hospital, educational institution, health care providers that may influence the patients treatment and care. 10) Consent or decline to participate in experimental research affecting his care. 11) Reasonable continuity of care when appropriate and be informed of other care options when hospital care is no longer appropriate 12) Be informed of hospital policies and practices that relate to patient care. Nurse’s Bill of Rights Nurse’s have the right to: 1) Practice in a manner that fulfills their obligation to the society and to those who receive nursing care. 2) Practice in environments that allow them to act in accordance with professional standards and legally authorized scope of nursing. 3) Work environment that supports and facilitates ethical practice 4) Freely and openly advocate for themselves and their patients without fear of retribution. 5. Fair compensation for their work consistent with their knowledge, experience, and professional responsibilities. 6. Work environment that is safe for themselves and their patients. 7. Negotiate conditions of employment, in all practice settings. LEGAL ASPECTS OF NURSING Nursing Jurisprudence the philosophy of law, or the science which treats the principles of positive law and legal relations Comprises all laws, rules, doctrines and principles, legal opinions and decisions of competent authority regarding governance and regulations of the practice of nursing. Functions of the Law in Nursing 1. Provides a framework for establishing what nursing actions in the care of patients are legal. . Delineates the nurse’s responsibilities from those of other health practitioners 3. Helps to establish the boundaries of independent nursing action 4. Assists in maintaining a standard of nursing practice by making nurses accountable under the law. Philippine Nursing Law Philippine Nursing Act of 2002 R. A. 9173 (October 21, 2002/ November 20, 2002) regulates Philippine nursing practice at present. The law p rovides about nursing registration, nursing examination, nursing education, nursing practice, and health human resource production, utilization and development. It is made up of 19 articles and 41 sections. Prohibitions in Practice of Nursing (Section 35) PENALTY: Fine: a. b. c. d. e. f. g. Php50,000- Php100,000 and/or Imprisonment 1- 6 years practice nursing without certificate or special permit use the certificate of others as his own use an invalid certificate give false evidence during registration falsely pose or advertise as a registered nurse illegally append BSN/RN to his/her name abet or assist the illegal practice of a person who is not lawfully qualified to practice nursing NEGLIGENCE Commission or omission of an act, pursuant to a duty, that a reasonably prudent person in the same or similar circumstance would or would not do, and acting or the non-acting of which is the proximate cause of injury to another person or his property Elements of Professional Negligence †¢ Duty †¢ Breach of duty †¢ Foreseeability †¢ Injury †¢ Direct relationship between failure to meet standard of care and injury can be proved Res Ipsa Loquitor â€Å"the thing speaks for itself† 3 conditions: 1. Accident which ordinarily doesn’t occur in the absence of someone’s negligence 2. Must be caused by an agency or within the exclusive control of the defendant 3. Must not have been due to voluntary action or contribution on the part of the plaintiff Specific Examples of Negligence †¢ Failure to report observations to attending physicians. †¢ Failure to exercise the degree of diligence which the circumstances of the particular case demands. †¢ Mistaken identity. †¢ Wrong medicine, wrong concentration, wrong route, wrong dose. Defects in the equipment such as stretchers and wheelchairs may lead to falls thus injuring the patients. †¢ Errors due to family assistance. †¢ Administration of medicine without a doctor’s prescription. Legal Defense in Negligence †¢ Provision of standard of care in giving service and that they have documented the care they given in a concise and accurate manner. †¢ Exercise sound judgment †¢ â⠂¬Å"assumption of risk† MALPRACTICE Stepping beyond one’s authority with serious consequences Reducing The Risk of Malpractice Litigation †¢ Maintain Good Communication Be courteous, show respect, and take time to listen – Do not belittle patients or make value judgment – Involve patients in decision making – Assess clients level of understanding – Explain so client understand – Clarify and verify Reducing The Risk of Malpractice Litigation †¢ Maintain Expertise in Practice – Keep up to date in both knowledge and skills – Do not attempt any task or give any meds that is unfamiliar – Practice within the professional scope of practice – Be familiar with standards of care – Be attentive of client’s changing status – Pay close attention to details – Document objectively, thoroughly and in a timely fashion Reducing The Risk of Malpractice Litigation †¢ Maintain autonomy and empowerment – Challenge questionable physician order – Seek attention for patient with changing needs – Challenge bureaucratic structures that threaten patient’s welfare – Avoid institutional settings that produce systematic threats to patient welfare Respondeat Superior †¢ Let the superior answer for the acts of the subordinate †¢ Master and servant are answerable; servant is responsible †¢ Actions performed by the employee within the scope of his employment. Force Majeure â€Å"irresistible/ superior force† †¢ Accident which human prudence can neither foresee or prevent †¢ â€Å"Act of God† Liability of Nurses †¢ Work of Nursing Aides †¢ Work of Nursing Students Delegation A process of transferring selected Nursing tasks to an individual who is competent. Any nursing intervention that requires independent special nursing knowl edge, skill or judgment CANNOT be delegated. Tasks that involve the assessment, planning and evaluation phases of the nursing process cannot be delegated. Delegation involves: †¢ Responsibility: an obligation to accomplish a task Accountability: acceptance of responsibility for the outcome of a duty †¢ Authority: right to act or empower Principles of delegation †¢ A nurse can only delegate those tasks for which that nurse is responsible, according to the specific states nurse practice act The delegator remains accountable for the task Along with responsibility for a task, the nurse who delegates must also transfer the authority necessary to complete the task The delegator knows well the task to be delegated Delegation is a contractual agreement that is entered into voluntarily †¢ †¢ †¢ Telephone Orders †¢ Only in an extreme emergency and when no other resident or intern is available. †¢ Nurse should read back the order to the physician. †¢ Signed by the physician within 24 hours. †¢ Nurse should sign the name of physician per her own and note the time the order was received. CONSENT CONSENT †¢ Free and rational act that presupposes knowledge of the thing to which consent is being given by a person who is legally capable to give consent. †¢ Authorization, by a patient or a person authorized by law to give the consent on the patient’s behalf. Informed Consent a) The diagnosis and explanation of the condition. b) A fair explanation of the procedures to be done and used and the consequences. c) A description of alternative treatments or procedures. d) A description of the benefits to be expected. e) Material rights if any. f) The prognosis. Things to Remember: †¢ Patient is the one who gives the consent. †¢ Person who is authorized to give the consent in behalf of the patient. †¢ Parents of minors. †¢ Minors are allowed if emancipated or married. †¢ Parents or legal guardians for mentally ill patients. Emergency situation entails implied consent. †¢ Patient has the right to refuse. MEDICAL RECORDS ? Legal protection for the hospital, doctor, and nurse ? â€Å"If it was not charted, it was not observed or done. † ? Nurses are expected to fully, accurately, legibly, and promptly document their observations. ? Subpoena duces tecum ? When a nurse or clinical instructor countersigns the chart ing of a nursing student, he/she attests that he/she has personal knowledge of information and that such is accurate and authentic. CRIME ?An act committed or omitted in violation of the law. Elements: a)Criminal act b)Evil/criminal intent TORTS ?A legal wrong, committed against a person or property. 1. Assault and Battery 2. False Imprisonment or Illegal Detention 3. Invasion of Right to Privacy and Breach of Confidentiality 4. Defamation Criminal Actions a. Misdemeanor †¢ †¢ General name for a criminal offense which does not amount to felony Punishment is usually a fine or imprisonment less than 1 year. b. Felony †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ Public offense Liable to be sentenced to death or penitentiary imprisonment. Deceit (dolo) ? deliberate intent Fault (culpa)? rongful acts result from imprudence , negligence, or lack of skill or foresight Classes of Felonies Degree of the Acts of Execution Attempted †¦offender commences the commission of the act and does not perform all the acts or execution by reason of some cause or accident other than his own spontaneous desistance Frustrated Consummated †¦offender performs all †¦when all the elements acts or execution of felony necessary for its execution but never produce it and accomplishment are because of causes present independent of the will of the perpetrator Degree of Punishment Grave Less Grave Light capital punishment (death) or penalties which any of their periods are afflictive (imprisonment ranging from 6 yrs to 1 day to life improsnment or a fine not exceeding P6000. 00) †¦penalties which in †¦penalty of arresto their maximum period menor (imprisonment are correctional for 1 day to 30 days or a (imprisonment ranging fine not exceeding from 1 month and 1 day P200. 00 or both to 30 days or a fine not exceeding P6000. 00 but not less than P200. 00) CRIMINAL NEGLIGENCE a. Reckless Imprudence †¢ Person does an act or fails to do it voluntarily but without malice, f rom which material damage results immediately. Person did not use precaution and the damage was not immediate or the impending danger was not evident b. Simple Imprudence †¢ CRIMINAL INTENT †¢ State of mind of a person at the time the criminal act is committed †¢ Knowledge that the act was unlawful Requisites: †¢ There must be FREEDOM †¢ There must be INTELLIGENCE Requisites of Criminal Intent Freedom Intelligence Freedom is absent in the 1. An imbecile or insane (unless following circumstances: acting during lucid of 1. Under compulsion of an interval). irresistible force. 2. Under nine years old. 2. Under the impulse of 3. Over nine under fifteen uncontrollable fear or an equal (unless he had acted with or greater injury. discernment). Persons Criminally Liable Principals †¢Those who take direct part in the execution of the act (principal by direct participation) †¢Those who directly force or induce others to commit it (principal by inducement) †¢Those who cooperate in the commission of the offense by another act without which it would not have been accomplished (principal by cooperation) Accomplices †¢The person who have a common criminal purpose with the criminal. †¢Have the intention to help and knowledge about the crime. Accessories †¢Have the knowledge but did not participate in the act. a. By profiting themselves. b. By concealing or destroying body of the crime, or instrument thereof, in order to prevent its discovery. c. By harboring, concealing or assisting in escape of the principal. Circumstances Affecting Criminal Liability JUSTIFYING ? Does not commit crime in the eye of the law a. In defense of his person or rights b. In defense of the rights of his family c. In order to avoid an evil or injury d. In the fulfillment of a duty e. In obedience to an order by some superior for some lawful purposes EXEMPTING ? There is crime committed but there is no criminal on account of absence of freewill and voluntariness to act. a. An imbecile or insane (unless acted on lucid interval) b. Under 9 yrs c. Over 9 and under 15 (unless acted on discernment) d. While performing a lawful act with due care, cause an injury by mere accident without fault or intention of causing it e. Act under the compulsion of an irresistible force f. Acts under impulse of uncontrollable fear of an equal injury g. Who fails to perform an act required by law, when prevented by some lawful or insuperable cause. MITIGATING ? which lessen the penalty a. b. c. d. e. f. g. h. Under 18 or over 70 yrs old No intention to commit so grave There was sufficient provocation Acted on impulse so powerful to have produced obfuscation Voluntarily surrendered Deaf or dumb, blind or suffering from defect. Illness that diminish will power Immediate vindication of grave offense to the one committing the felony, his/her spouse, ascend ants, descendants, legitimate, natural or adopted brothers or sisters, or relative by affinity within the first degree Lack of education is not Mitigating in: 1. Rape 2. Forcible abduction 3. Arson 4. Treason 5. In crimes against chastity like seduction and acts of lasciviousness; and 6. Those acts committed in a merciless or heinous manner AGGRAVATING ? †¦which increases the penalty a. Public position b. In contempt of public authority c. Committed with insult or in disregard of the respect of the offended party on account of his/her rank, age, or sex or that it is committed in the dwelling of the offended party, if the latter has not given provocation d. With abuse or confidence or obvious ungratefulness e. in a place of worship f. Conflagration, shipwreck, earthquake, epidemic or other calamity or misfortune g. Price, reward, or promise h. Committed by means of fire, poison, explosion, i. With evident premeditation or after unlawful entry j. Craft, fraud, or disguise is employed k. Causing other wrongs not necessary for its commission ? ALTERNATIVE ? Those which must be taken into consideration as aggravating or mitigating according to the nature effects of the crime and other conditions attending its commission ? Alternative circumstance of relationship should be taken into consideration Points to Observe in Order to Avoid Criminal Liability a. Be very familiar with the nursing law. b. Beware of the laws affecting nursing practice. . At the start of employment, get a copy of your job description, the agency’s rules, regulations and policies. d. Upgrade your skills and competence. e. Accept only such responsibility that is within the scope of your employment and your job description. f. Do not delegate your responsibility to others. g. Determine whether your subordinates are competen t in the work you are assigning them. h. Develop good interpersonal relationships with your coworkers, whether they be your supervisors, peers or subordinates. i. Consult your superiors for problems that may be too big for you to handle. . Verify orders that are not clear to you or those that seem to be erroneous. k. The doctors should be informed about the patient’s condition. l. Keep in mind the value and necessity of keeping accurate and adequate records. m. Patients are entitled to an informed consent. Moral Turpitude An act of baseness, vileness or depravity in social or private duties which a man owes to hi fellow man or society in general, an act contrary to the accepted and customary rule of right and duty between men Murder ? Unlawful killing a human being WITH INTENT to kill. ? A very serious crime Ex. Criminal Abortion Euthanasia Homicide ? Killing of a human being WITHOUT CRIMAL INTENT by a person other than his father, mother or child or any of his ascendants or descendants, or his spouse Abortion ? Expulsion of the product of conceptus before the age of viability ? In the law, any person who, with the intention pr prematurely ending a pregnancy, willfully and unlawfully does any act to cause the same is guilty of procuring abortion ? Art. II Sec. 15 of Phil. Constitution protects the life of the unborn Infanticide ? Killing of a child less than three (3) days of age ? Mother who committed this crime shall be imprisoned for two (2) years, four (4) months and one (1) day to six (6) years Parricide ? Crime committed by one who kills his/her father, mother or child whether legitimate or illegitimate, or any of his ascedants or descedants or his spouse. ? Convicted with this crime, shall be imposed a penalty of life imprisonment (Reclusion Perpetua) to death Robbery ? Crime against a person or property ? The taking of personal property of another person from him or in his presence Common Legal Terms R. Ns should know Affidavit – is a written statement made under oath efore a notary public or other person duly authorized Civil Law – concerned with legal rights and duties of private persons Criminal Law – deals with conduct that is considered to be offensive to a society as a whole Day in Court – the right of a person to appear in court and be heard concerning his complaint/defense Defendant – the person being accused o f wrongdoing; therefore needs to defend himself Deposition – an oral interrogation answering all manner of questions relating to the transaction at issue, given under oath and taken in writing before a judicial officer or attorney Nursing Jurisprudence Essay Example Nursing Jurisprudence Essay LEGAL ETHICAL issues in Nursing Nursing Etiquette concerned with moral principle governing the conduct of nurses towards patients, physicians, colleagues, the nursing profession and public Ethics part of philosophy that deals with systematic approaches to questions of morality a term for the study of how we make judgments regarding right and wrong a system of MORAL PRINCIPLES or moral standards governing conduct Moral human conduct in the application of ethics Concerned with JUDGMENT PRINCIPLES of right and wrong in relation to human actions and character Determinants of the Morality of Human Act †¢The OBJECT †¢The END †¢The CIRCUMSTANCES Ethical Principles Ethical Principles: INVIOLABILITY OF LIFE All human life, from the moment of conception and through all subsequent stages, is SACRED! No one can violate or destroy life! 8 ETHICAL DILEMMAS 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. ARTIFICIAL INSEMINATION IN VITRO FERTILIZATION HUMAN CLONING CONTRACEPTION ABORTION EUTHANASIA PHYSICIA N ASSISTED SUICIDE HUMAN TRANSPLANTATION 9 Argument favoring Euthanasia: compassion for the patient and shortening the period of suffering of the patient Argument disapproving Euthanasia: it is intrinsically wrong since it rejects life. 10 STEWARDSHIP Man has DOMINION over God’s creation: himself (life and health), creatures and environment One should reasonably, responsibly and respectfully benefit from them for service NOT domination TOTALITY Parts are integral, destined to be part of and subordinate to a whole SOLIDARITY One to be with others; to have a unity of interest, responsibility or goal. Based on the common good, love of neighbor, preferential for the most proximate and most need SUBSIDIARITY Every creature should be entrusted with the functions he is capable of performing. It relates to human dignity and recognize persons as free and responsible agents able to care and make decisions for them AUTONOMY Self Governance/Self Rule Having the freedom to make choices 4 Basic Elements of Autonomy 1. Respect for Autonomous Person 2. Ability to determine personal goals 3. Capacity to decide 4. Has Freedom to Act CONFIDENTIALITY Requires non-disclosure of private or secret information Confidentiality of Information ? Privileged communication ? Based on trust Revealed when: a. We will write a custom essay sample on Nursing Jurisprudence specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Nursing Jurisprudence specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Nursing Jurisprudence specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer The patient permits such revelation. b. Medico-legal cases/legal proceedings c. Communicable disease /public safety may be jeopardized. d. Continuity of care JUSTICE refers to the obligation to be fair to other people. Types: 1. distributive justice- fair distribution of responsibilities 2. criminal justice- penalty proportionate to crime 3. rectificatory justice- just compensation in civil law Distributive Justice To each equally. To each according to need. To each according to merit. To each according to person’s right. To each according to individual effort. To each as you would have done by. To each according to the greatest good to a greater number Double Effect Principle When an act has both good and bad effects, it is permissible if: 1) The direct freely chosen effect is morally good and the indirect foreseen but not desired may be harmful, 2) The action/object must not be evil, 3) The foreseen beneficial effect must be greater or equal to the foreseen evil effect 4) The beneficial effect must follow directly from the action or at least as immediate as the harmful effect BENEFICENCE- means to do good and not to do harm. NON- MALEFICENCE- one ought not to inflict evil or harm. 22 FIDELITY- refers to the obligation to be faithful to the agreements, commitments and responsibilities that one has made to oneself and others VERACITY- refers to telling the truth or not intentionally deceiving or misleading patients 23 RESPECT- treat all human beings as persons with rights SHARING AND ALLOCATION OF RESOURCESwho will receive particular scarce resources. 24 NURSING ETHICS ? All principles of right conduct in the practice of nursing ? Appraisal of rightness or wrongness of an act BIO–ETHICS Specific domain of ethics †¢ Systemic study of human behavior in the field of life science and health care in the light of moral values and principles Code of Nursing Ethics †¢ respect for human dignity †¢ safeguards the client’s right to privacy †¢ safeguard client and public †¢ assumes responsibility and accountability for own actions and judgments †¢ maintains competence in nur sing †¢ uses informed judgment, competence and qualifications in accepting responsibilities and delegating nursing activities †¢ Contributes to the development of the profession’s body of knowledge implement and improve standards of care †¢ establish and maintain conditions of employment conducive to high-quality nursing care †¢ protect the public from misinformation and misrepresentation and to maintain the integrity of nursing †¢ In collaboration with other allied health team members, meet the health care needs of the public Patient’s Bill of Rights The patient has the right to: 1) considerate and respectful care. 2) relevant, current, and understandable information concerning diagnosis, treatment, and prognosis. ) make decisions regarding his plan of care; in case of refusal, he is entitled to other appropriate care and service or to be transferred to another hospital. 4) Have advance directive (such as living will) concerning treatment or d esignating a surrogate decision maker. 5) Every consideration of his privacy such as in case discussion, consultation and treatment. 6) Confidentiality of communication and records 7) Review his records concerning his medical care and have these explained to him except when restricted by law. ) Expect that within its capacity and policies, a hospital will make reasonable response to the request of a patient for appropriate and medically indicated care and services. 9) Be informed of business relationship among hospital, educational institution, health care providers that may influence the patients treatment and care. 10) Consent or decline to participate in experimental research affecting his care. 11) Reasonable continuity of care when appropriate and be informed of other care options when hospital care is no longer appropriate 12) Be informed of hospital policies and practices that relate to patient care. Nurse’s Bill of Rights Nurse’s have the right to: 1) Practice in a manner that fulfills their obligation to the society and to those who receive nursing care. 2) Practice in environments that allow them to act in accordance with professional standards and legally authorized scope of nursing. 3) Work environment that supports and facilitates ethical practice 4) Freely and openly advocate for themselves and their patients without fear of retribution. 5. Fair compensation for their work consistent with their knowledge, experience, and professional responsibilities. 6. Work environment that is safe for themselves and their patients. 7. Negotiate conditions of employment, in all practice settings. LEGAL ASPECTS OF NURSING Nursing Jurisprudence the philosophy of law, or the science which treats the principles of positive law and legal relations Comprises all laws, rules, doctrines and principles, legal opinions and decisions of competent authority regarding governance and regulations of the practice of nursing. Functions of the Law in Nursing 1. Provides a framework for establishing what nursing actions in the care of patients are legal. . Delineates the nurse’s responsibilities from those of other health practitioners 3. Helps to establish the boundaries of independent nursing action 4. Assists in maintaining a standard of nursing practice by making nurses accountable under the law. Philippine Nursing Law Philippine Nursing Act of 2002 R. A. 9173 (October 21, 2002/ November 20, 2002) regulates Philippine nursing practice at present. The law p rovides about nursing registration, nursing examination, nursing education, nursing practice, and health human resource production, utilization and development. It is made up of 19 articles and 41 sections. Prohibitions in Practice of Nursing (Section 35) PENALTY: Fine: a. b. c. d. e. f. g. Php50,000- Php100,000 and/or Imprisonment 1- 6 years practice nursing without certificate or special permit use the certificate of others as his own use an invalid certificate give false evidence during registration falsely pose or advertise as a registered nurse illegally append BSN/RN to his/her name abet or assist the illegal practice of a person who is not lawfully qualified to practice nursing NEGLIGENCE Commission or omission of an act, pursuant to a duty, that a reasonably prudent person in the same or similar circumstance would or would not do, and acting or the non-acting of which is the proximate cause of injury to another person or his property Elements of Professional Negligence †¢ Duty †¢ Breach of duty †¢ Foreseeability †¢ Injury †¢ Direct relationship between failure to meet standard of care and injury can be proved Res Ipsa Loquitor â€Å"the thing speaks for itself† 3 conditions: 1. Accident which ordinarily doesn’t occur in the absence of someone’s negligence 2. Must be caused by an agency or within the exclusive control of the defendant 3. Must not have been due to voluntary action or contribution on the part of the plaintiff Specific Examples of Negligence †¢ Failure to report observations to attending physicians. †¢ Failure to exercise the degree of diligence which the circumstances of the particular case demands. †¢ Mistaken identity. †¢ Wrong medicine, wrong concentration, wrong route, wrong dose. Defects in the equipment such as stretchers and wheelchairs may lead to falls thus injuring the patients. †¢ Errors due to family assistance. †¢ Administration of medicine without a doctor’s prescription. Legal Defense in Negligence †¢ Provision of standard of care in giving service and that they have documented the care they given in a concise and accurate manner. †¢ Exercise sound judgment †¢ â⠂¬Å"assumption of risk† MALPRACTICE Stepping beyond one’s authority with serious consequences Reducing The Risk of Malpractice Litigation †¢ Maintain Good Communication Be courteous, show respect, and take time to listen – Do not belittle patients or make value judgment – Involve patients in decision making – Assess clients level of understanding – Explain so client understand – Clarify and verify Reducing The Risk of Malpractice Litigation †¢ Maintain Expertise in Practice – Keep up to date in both knowledge and skills – Do not attempt any task or give any meds that is unfamiliar – Practice within the professional scope of practice – Be familiar with standards of care – Be attentive of client’s changing status – Pay close attention to details – Document objectively, thoroughly and in a timely fashion Reducing The Risk of Malpractice Litigation †¢ Maintain autonomy and empowerment – Challenge questionable physician order – Seek attention for patient with changing needs – Challenge bureaucratic structures that threaten patient’s welfare – Avoid institutional settings that produce systematic threats to patient welfare Respondeat Superior †¢ Let the superior answer for the acts of the subordinate †¢ Master and servant are answerable; servant is responsible †¢ Actions performed by the employee within the scope of his employment. Force Majeure â€Å"irresistible/ superior force† †¢ Accident which human prudence can neither foresee or prevent †¢ â€Å"Act of God† Liability of Nurses †¢ Work of Nursing Aides †¢ Work of Nursing Students Delegation A process of transferring selected Nursing tasks to an individual who is competent. Any nursing intervention that requires independent special nursing knowl edge, skill or judgment CANNOT be delegated. Tasks that involve the assessment, planning and evaluation phases of the nursing process cannot be delegated. Delegation involves: †¢ Responsibility: an obligation to accomplish a task Accountability: acceptance of responsibility for the outcome of a duty †¢ Authority: right to act or empower Principles of delegation †¢ A nurse can only delegate those tasks for which that nurse is responsible, according to the specific states nurse practice act The delegator remains accountable for the task Along with responsibility for a task, the nurse who delegates must also transfer the authority necessary to complete the task The delegator knows well the task to be delegated Delegation is a contractual agreement that is entered into voluntarily †¢ †¢ †¢ Telephone Orders †¢ Only in an extreme emergency and when no other resident or intern is available. †¢ Nurse should read back the order to the physician. †¢ Signed by the physician within 24 hours. †¢ Nurse should sign the name of physician per her own and note the time the order was received. CONSENT CONSENT †¢ Free and rational act that presupposes knowledge of the thing to which consent is being given by a person who is legally capable to give consent. †¢ Authorization, by a patient or a person authorized by law to give the consent on the patient’s behalf. Informed Consent a) The diagnosis and explanation of the condition. b) A fair explanation of the procedures to be done and used and the consequences. c) A description of alternative treatments or procedures. d) A description of the benefits to be expected. e) Material rights if any. f) The prognosis. Things to Remember: †¢ Patient is the one who gives the consent. †¢ Person who is authorized to give the consent in behalf of the patient. †¢ Parents of minors. †¢ Minors are allowed if emancipated or married. †¢ Parents or legal guardians for mentally ill patients. Emergency situation entails implied consent. †¢ Patient has the right to refuse. MEDICAL RECORDS ? Legal protection for the hospital, doctor, and nurse ? â€Å"If it was not charted, it was not observed or done. † ? Nurses are expected to fully, accurately, legibly, and promptly document their observations. ? Subpoena duces tecum ? When a nurse or clinical instructor countersigns the chart ing of a nursing student, he/she attests that he/she has personal knowledge of information and that such is accurate and authentic. CRIME ?An act committed or omitted in violation of the law. Elements: a)Criminal act b)Evil/criminal intent TORTS ?A legal wrong, committed against a person or property. 1. Assault and Battery 2. False Imprisonment or Illegal Detention 3. Invasion of Right to Privacy and Breach of Confidentiality 4. Defamation Criminal Actions a. Misdemeanor †¢ †¢ General name for a criminal offense which does not amount to felony Punishment is usually a fine or imprisonment less than 1 year. b. Felony †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ Public offense Liable to be sentenced to death or penitentiary imprisonment. Deceit (dolo) ? deliberate intent Fault (culpa)? rongful acts result from imprudence , negligence, or lack of skill or foresight Classes of Felonies Degree of the Acts of Execution Attempted †¦offender commences the commission of the act and does not perform all the acts or execution by reason of some cause or accident other than his own spontaneous desistance Frustrated Consummated †¦offender performs all †¦when all the elements acts or execution of felony necessary for its execution but never produce it and accomplishment are because of causes present independent of the will of the perpetrator Degree of Punishment Grave Less Grave Light capital punishment (death) or penalties which any of their periods are afflictive (imprisonment ranging from 6 yrs to 1 day to life improsnment or a fine not exceeding P6000. 00) †¦penalties which in †¦penalty of arresto their maximum period menor (imprisonment are correctional for 1 day to 30 days or a (imprisonment ranging fine not exceeding from 1 month and 1 day P200. 00 or both to 30 days or a fine not exceeding P6000. 00 but not less than P200. 00) CRIMINAL NEGLIGENCE a. Reckless Imprudence †¢ Person does an act or fails to do it voluntarily but without malice, f rom which material damage results immediately. Person did not use precaution and the damage was not immediate or the impending danger was not evident b. Simple Imprudence †¢ CRIMINAL INTENT †¢ State of mind of a person at the time the criminal act is committed †¢ Knowledge that the act was unlawful Requisites: †¢ There must be FREEDOM †¢ There must be INTELLIGENCE Requisites of Criminal Intent Freedom Intelligence Freedom is absent in the 1. An imbecile or insane (unless following circumstances: acting during lucid of 1. Under compulsion of an interval). irresistible force. 2. Under nine years old. 2. Under the impulse of 3. Over nine under fifteen uncontrollable fear or an equal (unless he had acted with or greater injury. discernment). Persons Criminally Liable Principals †¢Those who take direct part in the execution of the act (principal by direct participation) †¢Those who directly force or induce others to commit it (principal by inducement) †¢Those who cooperate in the commission of the offense by another act without which it would not have been accomplished (principal by cooperation) Accomplices †¢The person who have a common criminal purpose with the criminal. †¢Have the intention to help and knowledge about the crime. Accessories †¢Have the knowledge but did not participate in the act. a. By profiting themselves. b. By concealing or destroying body of the crime, or instrument thereof, in order to prevent its discovery. c. By harboring, concealing or assisting in escape of the principal. Circumstances Affecting Criminal Liability JUSTIFYING ? Does not commit crime in the eye of the law a. In defense of his person or rights b. In defense of the rights of his family c. In order to avoid an evil or injury d. In the fulfillment of a duty e. In obedience to an order by some superior for some lawful purposes EXEMPTING ? There is crime committed but there is no criminal on account of absence of freewill and voluntariness to act. a. An imbecile or insane (unless acted on lucid interval) b. Under 9 yrs c. Over 9 and under 15 (unless acted on discernment) d. While performing a lawful act with due care, cause an injury by mere accident without fault or intention of causing it e. Act under the compulsion of an irresistible force f. Acts under impulse of uncontrollable fear of an equal injury g. Who fails to perform an act required by law, when prevented by some lawful or insuperable cause. MITIGATING ? which lessen the penalty a. b. c. d. e. f. g. h. Under 18 or over 70 yrs old No intention to commit so grave There was sufficient provocation Acted on impulse so powerful to have produced obfuscation Voluntarily surrendered Deaf or dumb, blind or suffering from defect. Illness that diminish will power Immediate vindication of grave offense to the one committing the felony, his/her spouse, ascend ants, descendants, legitimate, natural or adopted brothers or sisters, or relative by affinity within the first degree Lack of education is not Mitigating in: 1. Rape 2. Forcible abduction 3. Arson 4. Treason 5. In crimes against chastity like seduction and acts of lasciviousness; and 6. Those acts committed in a merciless or heinous manner AGGRAVATING ? †¦which increases the penalty a. Public position b. In contempt of public authority c. Committed with insult or in disregard of the respect of the offended party on account of his/her rank, age, or sex or that it is committed in the dwelling of the offended party, if the latter has not given provocation d. With abuse or confidence or obvious ungratefulness e. in a place of worship f. Conflagration, shipwreck, earthquake, epidemic or other calamity or misfortune g. Price, reward, or promise h. Committed by means of fire, poison, explosion, i. With evident premeditation or after unlawful entry j. Craft, fraud, or disguise is employed k. Causing other wrongs not necessary for its commission ? ALTERNATIVE ? Those which must be taken into consideration as aggravating or mitigating according to the nature effects of the crime and other conditions attending its commission ? Alternative circumstance of relationship should be taken into consideration Points to Observe in Order to Avoid Criminal Liability a. Be very familiar with the nursing law. b. Beware of the laws affecting nursing practice. . At the start of employment, get a copy of your job description, the agency’s rules, regulations and policies. d. Upgrade your skills and competence. e. Accept only such responsibility that is within the scope of your employment and your job description. f. Do not delegate your responsibility to others. g. Determine whether your subordinates are competen t in the work you are assigning them. h. Develop good interpersonal relationships with your coworkers, whether they be your supervisors, peers or subordinates. i. Consult your superiors for problems that may be too big for you to handle. . Verify orders that are not clear to you or those that seem to be erroneous. k. The doctors should be informed about the patient’s condition. l. Keep in mind the value and necessity of keeping accurate and adequate records. m. Patients are entitled to an informed consent. Moral Turpitude An act of baseness, vileness or depravity in social or private duties which a man owes to hi fellow man or society in general, an act contrary to the accepted and customary rule of right and duty between men Murder ? Unlawful killing a human being WITH INTENT to kill. ? A very serious crime Ex. Criminal Abortion Euthanasia Homicide ? Killing of a human being WITHOUT CRIMAL INTENT by a person other than his father, mother or child or any of his ascendants or descendants, or his spouse Abortion ? Expulsion of the product of conceptus before the age of viability ? In the law, any person who, with the intention pr prematurely ending a pregnancy, willfully and unlawfully does any act to cause the same is guilty of procuring abortion ? Art. II Sec. 15 of Phil. Constitution protects the life of the unborn Infanticide ? Killing of a child less than three (3) days of age ? Mother who committed this crime shall be imprisoned for two (2) years, four (4) months and one (1) day to six (6) years Parricide ? Crime committed by one who kills his/her father, mother or child whether legitimate or illegitimate, or any of his ascedants or descedants or his spouse. ? Convicted with this crime, shall be imposed a penalty of life imprisonment (Reclusion Perpetua) to death Robbery ? Crime against a person or property ? The taking of personal property of another person from him or in his presence Common Legal Terms R. Ns should know Affidavit – is a written statement made under oath efore a notary public or other person duly authorized Civil Law – concerned with legal rights and duties of private persons Criminal Law – deals with conduct that is considered to be offensive to a society as a whole Day in Court – the right of a person to appear in court and be heard concerning his complaint/defense Defendant – the person being accused o f wrongdoing; therefore needs to defend himself Deposition – an oral interrogation answering all manner of questions relating to the transaction at issue, given under oath and taken in writing before a judicial officer or attorney

Puritan in early America essays

Puritan in early America essays When King Henry VII dissolved the Catholic Church and made the Church of England rendering the Pope powerless in all English affairs (Williams, 4), some people, non-conformists, were not happy. They were persecuted for practicing their religion, so when they found a chance to leave, they did. This first group of people had been living in self-exile in Leyden, Holland. They were known by 3 different names, their leader William Bradford called them Pilgrims, those who held them in contempt called them Brownists, and to King James and his court they were known as Separatists (Williams, 48). They were forced to leave England, because their complete and unchanging belief that religion should be completely free from government. They became tired of Holland, because of their poor worship of the Sabbath, and were ready to find a new place to live, but only 35 were brave enough to go to the America, they were joined by 66 people from London. Their desired destination is not known, but they ended up landing at Cape Cod. After some exploring surrounding land the Pilgrims chose Plymouth Rock as their permanent settlement (Williams, 52). Although the first year almost half of the population died, by 1632, 11 years after the beginning their population was up to 500. By the end in 1691 the population was no more than eight thousand scattered in several towns (Williams, 53). Puritans made many settlements and had trade routes in between the cities. Inside of the cities life was organized and run very strictly. The church was the government and controlled everything under strict rule. They believed punishment for everything should be death or shame. If you had beliefs other than what the church wanted you to have you would be thrown in jail, or banished. The church felt fear of God was the way to worship, and also felt that fear was the best way to run a community. Puritans, like all Protestants, believed in predestination; God, they decla...

Marco and Mirco Economic Affecting the Performance of Aon Corporation Essay

Marco and Mirco Economic Affecting the Performance of Aon Corporation Shares - Essay Example This paper will seek to analyze macro and microeconomic factors of this company affecting its daily performance in thte sale of its shares in the stock exchange market. Although the company has been receiving different awards in different categories in its services provision arena, there are other factors influencing its performance of its major product, shares, in the stock exchange market. Aon has relevant demand and supply factors that influence its sales of shares and the volume of accrued profits at the end of its fiscal year. For instance, there are global factors that affect its reinsurance brokerage supply chain such as record reinsurer capital. Documented evidence shows that, due to reinsurance supply of reinsurer capital, the level of reinsurer capital increased by 17 percent, during the first nine months of 2010, surpassing its peak capital level of 2007. Surprisingly, reinsurer capital of Aon is still in excess of demand for capacity up to date and because of this demand, the level of traded shares increased drastically. According to Aon Benfield, the demand for its shares has been a fundamental and overwhelming factor for the majority of its services. This is because; insurers are facing downward pricing pressure forcing them to release more of their redundancies hence increasing their demand for reinsurance (Baumol & Blinder, 2008:84). This is practically vital for Aon Corporation since increased demand for reinsurance means more profits as stock exchange market participation rises in order to raise adequate funds for the extra demand and supply. The market structure of Aon Corporation with response to trading of shares in the stock exchange market is a wide one, figured to deliver the best and effective services to its active stock exchange market share buyers and sellers worldwide through sub branches, online, or phone (eTrade) (Wapler, 2003:46). Due to its need to have a structured market globally, it established Global Business Units that help to integrate its corporate culture of work within as well as across borders. What connects all these units is the Company’s shared purpose and vision, which has uniform standards together with a state of the art technology. This global network of companies provides the most effective structure of market suitable for its share trading and active participation in the stock exchange market. There are few things that Aon Corporation should do in order to, either continue making profits in this market structure or move towards more profit generating market structure. To begin with, Aon has an organic market structure that depends primarily on its existing demand for risks, need for insurance, human resource consulting services and hugely on share trading. Secondly, its structural market also targets corporations, government arms, insurance companies and so many other organizations with potent ability to actively-participate in the stock exchange market. With such a broad market s tructure, the company continues to record a great deal of profits from its sell of shares. Despite accruing profits from sell of its shares at this structural market, the company experiences cyclical economic swings owing to stock exchange market fluctuations that impose more pressure on the active participation in the stock exchange market of the company. As a result, there is need for maintenance and creation of a more reputable market structure

Movie Review Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 3

Movie Review - Essay Example Geiger’s death is followed by a trail of other people’s deaths in connection with Carmen’s scandalous pictures. Taylor, the general’s chauffeur is found dead. Marlowe figures out that Taylor was in love with Carmen. He also thinks that Taylor might be responsible for Geiger’s death due to the naughty pictures. However, the blackmail trail continues where Marlowe thinks of a possible solution without success. Initially, the general thought that his Irish friend, Reagan had solved the problem. Reagan had escaped with another man’s wife. The events in the film unfold where Marlowe and Vivian Sternwood fall in love. Towards the end, Marlowe realizes that Reagan had been killed. Marlowe knows about it when Carmen points a gun at him and attempts to kill him. Carmen had killed Reagan from the beginning of the film. Marlowe gets the wind of it and together with Vivian decides not to tell their father because it could break his heart. Marlowe allows Vivian to go as long as she helps Carmen alleviate her insanity. The thoughts of death as ‘the big sleep’ revolve around the mind of Marlowe towards the end of the film. Just like the film â€Å"The Big Sleep†, â€Å"The Long Goodbye† justifies that killing can cause people to go forever. â€Å"The Long Goodbye† implies one cannot play around with death as it makes people disappear from the face of the earth forever. In this film, Terry Lennox runs to Marlowe’s home to seek. Lennox tells Marlowe to drive him to Mexico but does not realize that Lennox is wanted for the murder of his wife. Marlowe gets arrested as an accomplice of the murderer and released after three days. Marlowe wins his freedom after Lennox commits suicide in a hotel. Sometimes later, Marlowe is hired by Eileen Wade to find her missing husband. The missing husband had disappeared several times but ended up in rehab institutions due to his drinking problem. However, Eileen has not been able to find

Business report-progress report Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Business report-progress report - Essay Example However, they also come from a generation when parents tended to spend more time with their children. The millenials are also quite different because they grew up during the technology boom. Thus, they tend to have much stronger technological skills than others of previous generations. Charicteristically, they are known to be skeptical and impatient, being both image-driven and expressive. The findings discovered here are consistent with the findings done in primary research, so therefore, the analysis of their characteristics is important to take into consideration. Millennials respond to techniques that allow them to both express themselves and prove themselves. They tend to work faster and multi-task better than those of previous generations. They are also very good at adapting. Therefore, it is important to approach them and allow them to work in situations that allow them to both multitask and to be expressive. Millennials are interested in technological savvy jobs that provide them with upward mobility as well as benefits. Overall, they seem to prefer technological challenging jobs and are interested in career paths that allow them to use their multi tasking abilities. Focus on image is very important when recruiting generation Y. Generation Y is attracted to image, so therefore it is important to use a technological approach that will catch their attention. A general focus on technology with a strong image base will gain their interest; i.e., one can advertise successfully on the Internet with a very catchy visual ad. Effective retention targeting for generation Y includes motivational skills. It is important to motivate these individuals, as sometimes they require a little more â€Å"push† than previous generations, but once given that motivation, they have the skills necessary to be very innovative and productive. In order to promote cross-generational

Child labour defined as economic exploitation

Child labour defined as economic exploitation CHILD LABOUR Child labour is unacceptable in developed countries for its negative impact and should be discouraged in every society. Child labour can be defined as economic exploitation and performing any work that is likely to be dangerous or hinder the childs education, and harmful to the childs health. Children under labour are denied their educational right and a normal childhood. Some children are restricted and beaten; some are denied freedom of movement that is, the right for them to leave the workplace and join their families while some are abducted and forced to work. Child labour deprives children of their childhood and their dignity. Many of the children in every society today work long hours for low or no wage, often under the conditions harmful to their health, physical and mental development. They are also deprived of an education and they may be separated from families. In my interview with Dr Quaye, a faculty member in American University of Nigeria, he stated that â€Å"Children who do not complete their primary education are likely to remain illiterate and never acquire the skills needed to get a job and contribute to the development of the current economy†. It was stated by United Nations Secretary General Kofi, Annan that â€Å"Child labour has serious consequences that stay with the individual and with society for longer than the years of childhood†. Young workers not only face dangerous working conditions but they also face long-term physical, intellectual and emotional stress. They face an adulthood of unemployment and illiteracy. Furthermore, child labour occurs because of the high level of poverty and lack of development. For example, there were these two kids in my own town Benin, Osagie and Uwa. Their parents were very poor and had no jobs, because of the level of hardship their parents were facing; these kids were forced to work in a block industry for there were no other alternative than sending their kids to work. At the workplace these kids were tortured by their employers. They were beaten anytime they made a little mistake and they were given heavy load of blocks to carry. This over a long period of time stunted their growth. More also, there was a case of an abused eighteen year old girl in Casablanca. She narrates her story I started working when I was fourteen, my mother died when I was twelve. I lived with my fathers wife. We needed money so I went to work. It was me and my half sister, who is now eight years old. My fathers wife works now [that I dont work anymore], but I havent seen her for a year. A neighbor found me the job. I wanted to commit suicide, but then I thought, â€Å"No one will miss me.† So I went to the neighbor and she found me work in Casablanca. We were very poor and I didnt see a way out. The work was prostitution, and I thought that killing myself would be better morally than dying of AIDS from prostitution but I had no choice, I have to do it. (Human Rights watch 2005). Therefore, child labour is a source of income for poor families. A study conducted by the international labour organization (ILO) agent of statistics found that â€Å"childrens work was considered essential to maintaining the economics level of households, either in the form of work for wages, of help in household enterprises or of household tasks in order to free adult household members for economics activity elsewhere† (Mehra Kerpelman 1996, pg 8). In some cases, the study found that a childs income accounted for was 34 to 37 percent of the total household income. The study concludes by pointing to the population of people living in India â€Å"the percentage of the population of India living in poverty is high. In 1990, 37% of the urban population and 39% of the rural population were living in poverty† (International labour organization 1995, 107). Poverty has an obvious relation with child labour, and study have â€Å"revealed positive links in some case a strong one between child labour and such factors as poverty† (Mehra Kerpelman 199, 8). Family that are poor need money to survive and their children are the only solution. They thought by sending their children to work, will yield more income to their financial aims. In addition, child trafficking led to child labour. Receipt of a child for the purpose of sexual or labour exploitation, severe physical abuse, as in a case cited by Human Rights watch report, Contemporary form of slavery. Pakistan: July, 1995. Two year ago at the age of seven, Anwar started weaving carpets in a village in Pakistans province of sindh. He was given some food, little free time and no medical assistance. He was told repeatedly that he could not stop working until he earned enough money to pay an alleged family debt. He was never told who in his family had borrowed money or how much he had borrowed. Any time he made an error with his work, he was fined and the debt increased. Once when his work was considered to be too slow, he was beaten with stick. Once after a particularly painful beating, he tried to run away, only to be apprehended by the local police who forcibly returned him to the carpet looms. More also, thousands of children are also bought and sold within and across national borders. They are trafficked for sexual exploitation, for begging, and for work on construction sites, plantations and into domestic work. The vulnerability of these children is even greater when they arrive in another country. Often they do not have contact with their families and are at mercy of their employer.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  For child labour to be totally eradicated these things must be fully met. Firstly, the government of every society should ensure that the needs of the poor are met before attacking child labour. If poverty is totally addressed, the need for child labour will diminish. No matter how hard the society try, child labour will always exist until the need for it is removed. The development of the society is being held back by child labour. Children are growing up as illiterates because they have been working all of their life and not attending school. Sequential rate of poverty is formed and the need for child labour is reborn after every generation. Every society that is affected by this act of child labour, need to address the situation by dealing with the primary cause of child labour through the governmental policies and the enforcement of these policies. Only then will the society succeed in the fight against child labour. Secondly, government should try improving schooling and health care in general will help child labourers because if children are healthy and well educated, they will grow to up to help their society which will become a better place. For instance, making education compulsory and free will motivate most parents to send their children to schools, instead of engaging them in commercial jobs. Finally, employers should not use child labour in ways that are socially unacceptable and that lead to a child losing his or her educational opportunities. The difficulty of the issue of child labour means that companies need to address the issue sensitively, and not take action which may force working children into more abusive forms of work.

The Civil Rights Movement (1955- 1965) Essay -- Black struggle for civi

Civil Rights Movement in the United States, was a political, legal, and social struggle to gain full citizenship rights for African Americans and to achieve racial equality. The civil rights movement was a challenge to segregation, the system of laws and customs separating blacks and whites. During the civil rights movement, individuals and organizations challenged segregation and discrimination with a variety of activities, including protest marches, boycotts, and refusal to abide by segregation laws. Some believe that the movement began with the Montgomery bus boycott in 1955 and ended with the Voting Rights Act of 1965, there is still however some debate about when it began and whether it has ended yet. The civil rights movement has also been called the Black Freedom Movement, the Negro Revolution, and the Second Reconstruction. Segregation was an attempt by white Southerners to separate the races in every sphere of life and to achieve supremacy over blacks. Segregation was often called the Jim Crow system. Segregation became common in Southern states following the end of Reconstruction in 1877. By 1877 the Democratic Party had gained control of government in the Southern states, and these Southern Democrats wanted to reverse black advances made during Reconstruction. To that end, they began to pass local and state laws that specified certain places ?For Whites Only? and others for ?Colored.? Blacks had separate schools, transportation, restaurants, and parks, many of which were poorly funded and inferior to those of whites. Over 75 years, Jim Crow signs went up to separate the races in every possible place. The system of segregation also included the denial of voting rights, known as disfranchisement. Between 1890 and 1910 all Southern states passed laws imposing requirements for voting that were used to prevent blacks from voting, These requirements included: the ability to read and write, which disqualified the many blacks who had not had access to education; property ownership, something few blacks were able to acquire; and paying a poll tax, which was too great a burden on most Southern blacks, who were very poor. Because blacks could not vote, they were virtually powerless to prevent whites from segregating all aspects of Southern life. Conditions for blacks in Northern states were somewhat better, up to 1910 only 10 percent of bl... ...y?s administration and the Congress to pass the civil rights legislation proposed by Kennedy by planning a march in Washington for August 1963. Martin Luther King, Jr., delivered a moving address to an audience of more than 200,000 civil rights supporters. His ?I Have a Dream? speech . Kennedy was assassinated in November 1963,and the new president, Lyndon Johnson pushed the Civil Rights Act of 1964 through Congress. It prohibited segregation in public accommodations and discrimination in education and employment. After the Voting Rights Act of 1965, the focus of the civil rights movement began to change. Martin Luther King, Jr., began to focus on poverty and racial inequality in the North. In 1965 he joined protests against school discrimination in Chicago and the following year he led marches against housing discrimination in the same city. For many activists the civil rights movement ended in 1968 with the death of Martin Luther King, Jr. Others said it was over after the Selma march, because after Selma the movement stopped achieving major change. Some, especially blacks, argue that the movement is not over yet because the goal of full equality has not been achieved.

Developing Approaches of Supply Chain Management Systems

296 The International Arab Journal of Information Technology, Vol. 5, No. 3, July 2008 Developing Approaches of Supply Chain Management Systems of Enterprises in Pakistan Danish Irfan1, 2, Xu Xiaofei1, and Deng Sheng Chun1 1 School of Computer Science and Engineering, Harbin Institute of Technology, China 2 Department of Computer Science, COMSATS Institute of Information Technology, Pakistan Abstract: This paper identifies the problems of pakistani enterprises concerning supply chain networks and orders solutions to improving its overall performance and competitiveness.Seldom, a non-trivial amount of research efforts has been made in emergent nations to improve and enhance supply chain management paradigm. Our survey comprised nine enterprises; among them four are successfully modelled and presented. The detailed supply chain structure and study is also made. The paper concludes by suggesting and adopting modelled approach to the corporations in their move towards implementing supply chain management strategies. Keywords: Supply chain, supply chain management, supply chain networks. Received October 14, 2006; accepted April 25, 2007 1. Introduction Supply Chain Management (SCM) has gained ignificance as one of the 21st century’s manufacturing technology and innovative paradigms for improving organizational competitiveness. SCM has been considered a competitive strategy for integrating suppliers and customers with the objective improving response time and flexibility [6]. Competitiveness in today’s marketplace depends closely on the ability of a firm to grip the challenges of reducing lead-time, cost estimation, increasing customer service levels and improving product quality. Conventionally, sourcing, production, distribution and marketing have been working independently. Unfortunately, although they seem to be working owards a common goal, the organizational units have different objectives. Nowadays, the focus is shifting toward digitally integra ted demand and Supply Chain (SC) configurations that are built around establishing networks of relationships between the firm, its suppliers, customers and partner entities. In our paper, we explain the work of different enterprises of pakistan considering their abilities and the SCM key challenges faced in developing their SCM approach. The data utilized for different SCM systems in this paper are derived from large, nationwide and cosmopolitan pakistani corporations, mong them four of which we refer to as enterprises A, B, C and D. Section 1 gives a brief introduction of the four enterprises from SCM perspective. Section 2 describes the related work in SCM. In section 3, we study existing systems and propose the SCM models for each enterprise. Section 4 concludes the study and presents future directions and strategies. 2. Related Work Unfortunately, there is no explicit narration of SCM or its activities in the literature [2]. The ultimate success of firms will depend on managemen t’s ability to integrate the company’s intricate network of business relationships, allowing improved decision making and onsequently, reducing cost and customer response time. SCM is not only this but much more and beyond. SCM concerns neither to minimize nor to maximize but rather to optimize (integration, coordination, variability, uncertainty management and control) processes for the enterprise. An efficient and responsive SCM aims to move from a simple SC Figure 1 (a) to a well structured and extended SC Figure 1 (b). (a) Simple supply chain. (b) Extended supply chain. Figure 1. Supply chain type. Developing Approaches of Supply Chain Management Systems of Enterprises in Pakistan Literary summary shows the SCM concepts as ollows: centralized vs. decentralized control, business process re-engineering strategies, information distortion, detrimental effect of bullwhip factor, SCM for suppliers and firms performance, incorporating model between supplier and retailer; benefits, impact, influence, activities, challenges to integrated SCM, need for performance measures for support of global supply chain improvement; value of information in a two level SCM; modelling the complexity and dynamics; design and management for SC systems; information sharing; and applications of lean thinking to manufacturing operations [3].Supply chain strategy assessment including sourcing, development of inventory planning and management processes, benchmarking and SC Key Performance Indicators (KPI) collectively approach improvement of SC performance. It combines a strategic approach with practical tactical solutions that save time and money for the consumers. Nowadays, few enterprises are in commencement to adopt SCM to improve their performance and to address their unfavourable inter-organizational purchaser-supplier relationships and disjointed processes. Although SCM in erection is still in its infancy, there is a need for SCM adoption to date and o scrutinize whe ther its maturity matches the key features of such a class of improvement. SCM featuring market saturation driven, operationally agile, consumers customized, logistics optimized and trade focused prioritization are accenture’s successful supply chain strategies which are widely varied but are equally successful [1, 5]. In [4] the SCOR reference model captures the â€Å"as-is† state of the business process with the objective of achieving the desired â€Å"to-be† future state of PTC, pakistan. In the next section we proceed with the modelled SCN schema of the following enterprises. 3. Typical Enterprises Concerning SCM inPakistan In this section, we describe the enterprise structure one by one. Firstly, enterprise ‘A’ describes the SCM phase inspection of certain Vehicle (V). Secondly, enterprise ‘B’ gives proposal of Business to Consumer (B2C) model for development of electrical appliances. Then, enterprise ‘C’ discusses SCM for design and manufacture segments of communication equipment and lastly, enterprise ‘D’ shows the SC mechanism at a research oriented enterprise. We refer to appendix A for acronyms used in this paper. 3. 1. Enterprise ‘A’: SCM Phase Inspection† of Certain Vehicle (V) In this enterprise study, we only focused on the SCM hase inspection of certain Vehicle (V). Its key 297 segments are forecasting, planning, scheduling, demand of components and procurements. The purpose of this phase inspection is to access and evaluate: †¢ Usage of vehicle ‘V’. †¢ Calendar based inspection schedule staggered so as to assure the SC procurement. †¢ Induction of vehicle for inspection in the presently available time. The hierarchy of phase inspection in the enterprise ‘A’ concerning SCM is shown in Figure 2. In Charge Engineering Branch Control Branch Sub Engineering Branch Phase Inspection Branch Figure 2. Hierarchy of phase in spection in enterprise ‘A’.If vehicle usage is more than the specified time then inspection time held is decreased, i. e. , from 10 months to one year. The types of phase inspection as described by OEM along with its codes are shown in Table 1. Table 1. Types of phase inspection as described by OEM. Inspection Code M1 M2 M3 M4 Time (Days) 20 21 22 25 The ‘premeditated maintenance’ branch views the item’s checklist. It receives the current stock levels for a variety of stock types required for inspection and monitors the flow of materials in and out of inventory. All the items are prerequisite before phase inspection’s induction starts.The control branch takes responsibility and forecasts to keep living items recorded and tracks them for timely replacement. It forecasts the processes on three-monthly, six-monthly, yearly and bi-yearly basis. The demand process is initiated by the user and a query is sent to the logistics department. Jet warehou se takes action on demand via Automatic Logistics Management System (ALMS). The demand is processed to the depot for accomplishment; otherwise the item is put on demand from source abroad in consultation with the head office of the department. The SC in phase inspection of the vehicle is shown in Figure 3.It includes procurement agencies, depot Ware Houses (WH), logistics, jet stores, material control and the users. Table 2 shows demand priorities over the lead times of the phase inspection. The ‘designator priority system’ of current enterprise is based on historical assumptions, experience, system log-in, log-out time, intercontinental and local logistics 298 The International Arab Journal of Information Technology, Vol. 5, No. 3, July 2008 in-between lead times and depot area. Here the consumption is based on usage value. Table 2. Demand priorities over the lead times. Demand Priority Code Lead Times (Days) 03 06 13 2 – 13 16 – 17 69 – 84 Alterin g the item criteria for phase inspection is defined as: †¢ Mandatory change items as specified by OEM are forecasted, procured and kept as a kit. †¢ Conditional change items are demanded if the bench checks fail. Firstly, items are sent for Local Repair (LR) and issues Dead-Line-Date (DLD). If it succeeds, items are sent back to procurement department; otherwise a query is placed to the Local Manufacture (LM) department. Automated Logistics Management System – ALMS Automatic inventory management system – AIMS Deport automated inv. management system – DAIMS DAIMS financial management systemAIMS financial management system Purchase order management system – POMS Local purchase management system – LPMS Clothing exchange management system – CEX Catalogue management system – CMS Stowage tracking system – STS Transportation management system -TMS Preservation data collection & analysis system – PDCAS Serialized parts management system – SPMS Calibration management system -CMS Worker training system – WTS Figure 4. Automatic logistics management system. Figure 3. SCM phase inspection of a certain vehicle (V). In the proceeding section we discuss ALMS, an automated system adopted by enterprise ‘A’. 3. 1. 1.Automatic Logistics Management System Automatic Logistics Management System (ALMS) is an interactive, fully automated, incorporating data processing, knowledge base and effective support to all operational units in the organization. It is a family of software implemented on an IBM 3090 machine. Its main functions are inventory and maintenance management. Mainly, it contains a maintenance and supply module as shown in Figure 4. The ALMS characterises the SCM phase which make the whole system. SC modules of ALMS are comprised of Automatic Inventory Management System (AIMS), Deport Automated Inventory Management System (DAIMS), Purchase OrderManagement System (POMS), Loc al Purchase Management System (LPMS), Clothing Exchange Management System (CEX), Catalogue Management System (CMS) and Transportation Management System (TMS). These components results in: †¢ Featuring the whole SC of phase inspection of the enterprise. †¢ Online requisitioning and feed back status. †¢ Auto requisitioning based on demand level. †¢ Assets visibility to all authorized users. †¢ Repairable asset control through Stowage Tracking System (STS). Essential supply reports are made daily on a document register and submitted to higher authorities for completion indication of this phase. Here it oncludes the SCM of phase inspection of Vehicle (V). 3. 2. Enterprise ‘B’: Proposal of Business to Consumer Model for Development of Electrical Appliances Enterprise ‘B’ gives a SCM model for proposal of B2C development of electrical appliances. The main objectives include: †¢ Multiple vendor development for large scale production. †¢ Efficient demand and supply management system. †¢ Self driving automated network. †¢ After sales support network for production support services like spare parts and repair. †¢ Awareness of SC actors. The first objective explains the contingency plan, i. e. , not depending on a single vendor and must have eliable supplier/s. The Main SCM activities of the B2C model for electrical appliance growth are shown in Figure 5. Depending upon product status and type, the customer interaction with the SC can be categorized into three parts. First, in case of complex products e. g. , ship. Customers have to directly contact the manufacturers or the OEM. Second, e. g. , in case of a car, the customer can contact a repair factory and the repair factory or agent can contact the manufacturer. Last, in the example of a desktop computer, the customer contacts with the sales distributors, who further link with the regional suppliers and so on.Developing Approaches of Supply Cha in Management Systems of Enterprises in Pakistan Figure 5. SCM activities flow and coordination in B2C model for development of electrical appliances. Figure 6 describes the use case diagram of the characters of the â€Å"as is† schema of current enterprise. Our main characters include national and regional suppliers, manufacturer, local shop and the customer. 299 In the current system, SCM comprises three main departments: sales and marketing, production and planning control, and procurement and inventory management which serve as the backbone of the SC. The planning phase goes through MRP which checks hat, for whom and how much to order. Capacity planning overviews the additional investment (if any) to meet the targets. Then production planning looks for facilities, technical and transportation phases. Sourcing makes the order scarification. In Bill Of Materials (BOM) it shows the item source code from local and foreign production within the enterprise and then assembles. I t lacks in maintaining a standard of vendor evaluation. The enterprise ‘C’ schema is shown in Figure 7. Figure 6. Case diagram of â€Å"as is† process. The time frame of implementing SCM activities flow is shown in Table 3. The current enterprise chema lacks in customer relationship phase. Regional suppliers must be expanded to give a broader scope for its customers and local retailers. Table 3. Time frame of implementation for different phases. The goal to eliminate the vast majority (costs of receiving, shipping, expediting, data entry, data processing, accounting, and error follow-up) of regional suppliers need Just-In-Time (JIT) interaction with the manufacturer for enhancement of effective SC. 3. 3. Enterprise ‘C’: Design and Manufacture Segments of Long Message Equipment Enterprise ‘C’ discusses design and manufacture segments of long message equipment with the bjective to acquire and develop a sophisticated technological base for long message systems and to enlarge and expand production of components. Durable AS400 system support is available for its Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP) and Supply Chain Network (SCN). Figure 7. Design and manufacturing framework for enterprise ‘C’. For ordering, quotations are called and regarding the minimum amount quotation the order is placed. The steps include: †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ Quotations call/ float. Cost comparison statements. Selection of potential customers. Order placement. The Receiving/ storing section receives the items in orm of Semi Knock Down (SKD) and Completely Knock Down (SKD). Right from the main entry of the goods in the enterprise, a receipt is generated against the goods received. The phases include Incoming Good Inspection (IGI), Incoming Goods Forwarding (IGF), Incoming Goods Receiving (IGR), allotting code No’s to items and updating inventory in the system. The Quality Control (QC) of the engineering department ensure s the quality of the received products. The receipts along with the inspected goods are frontward to the store department. Here an inventory code is generated for each item. The make/ deliver ensure alue addition and quality inspection. The question arises why to have an inventory? Our requirements fulfil the answer for the question. First, we want to meet anticipated demand and smooth production requirement. Second, we want to have a buffer of items and avoid stock out. It also takes advantage of the order cycle and hedges against price increase. The business nature of the under discussed 300 The International Arab Journal of Information Technology, Vol. 5, No. 3, July 2008 enterprise can be categorized as â€Å"make-to-order† and â€Å"engineer-to-order†. The customer tells specification and the RandD of the enterprise works on the required emand of its customer. The main work in current enterprise ‘C’ is made on â€Å"inventory turn over† or â₠¬Å"turnaround time calculation†. For this, let inventory turnover be Q, inventory I, sales S, cost C and time taken t for the system. Then Q is defined as number of times a company is able to convert its inventory I into sales during the course of a year. It is calculated by dividing cost of sales by average inventory. Q= C( t ) I( t ) (1) Turnaround time= Cost of goods sold from stock sales during one year (2) Average inventory investment during one year past Table 4. Annual inventory turnover. Year Annual Cost ofGoods Sold ($) Inventory ($) Investment Annual Inventory Turnover 2000 – 01 85692 12312 2001 – 02 2002 – 03 2003 – 04 2004 – 05 77600 99356 50000 65000 14923 21981 9766 15330 6. 96 5. 20 4. 52 5. 12 Average 4. 24 5. 21 Table 4 shows the annual inventory turnover which converts inventory into saleable goods for this product. Most of the inventory is pilled up which also checks sales vs. inventory. The disadvantage of annual inventory turnover shows the block up inventory of the enterprise which could be used for some other purposes in the enterprise. Some of the reasons for the pilling up of inventory show that: This analysis of inventory has revealed the cases for increase in inventory over the years. †¢ Some stock is held to cater for after sales support during the warranty period as well as for providing repair services against invoices. †¢ For items where backup support from the main supplier has been stopped, the enterprise has to keep some inventory to provide backup support to its customers. †¢ In order to meet the spare requirement for customers under the contractual obligations, a certain stock of modules is kept. †¢ Pre-ordered materials that are not converted into sales also add up to stock up inventory. Some items are pilled up due to Minimum Order Quantity (MOQ) requirement. The imperfections found in the system are tribulations to manufacturing. First, there is demand of items but no traceability. Demand section is unable to predict the items to fulfill the demand. Second, there is no entry of lead times showing the absence of items from inventory physically. 3. 3. 1. Recommendations for Improvement in Turnover Time of Inventory †¢ All items (sales stores as well as main stores) required after-sales-support during the warranty period may be shifted for the repair (R code) warehouse. The items lying in repair may be xcluded from inventory evaluation. †¢ After the completion of delivery against a project or near the closing of the financial year, if the bulk of the project is delivered, which ever is earlier, the sales and marketing department will transfer an appropriate quantity of modules for backup support during the warranty period to the repair warehouse. †¢ The cost of such items, as worked out by the finance department should be charged to the after sales support account. †¢ When the product is phased out and its backup support i s stopped by the main supplier to other collaborators, the balance of materials for that roduct may be zero valued. †¢ The responsibility of the issuance of material from the repair warehouse should rest with the customer services department. In order to realize some of the struck up funds in the preordered existing inventory of the enterprise, the same may be offered as discounted prices to prospective customers. †¢ Greater emphasis may be given on accurate forecasting to avoid losses resulting from failure to sell pre-ordered material. †¢ The purchase committee should also take care in placing orders against anticipated customer orders. If possible, an agreement should be made with the upplier where it will be bound to take back the materials if the expected customer order is not received. The exercise for obsolescence should be carried out regularly especially after every six months and the materials identified as obsolete should be disposed of to rationalize inven tory value as well as to free storage space. The above SCM study gives opportunity to gain knowledge about: †¢ Envisioning the whole SC and understand its impact on inventory †¢ Cost reduction for a better inventory control †¢ Differentiation between visualizing different ordering types in an enterprise like make to order, ake to engineer and assemble to order etc. , and the same, can be compared with current systems. †¢ Understand how a surplus inventory plays a vital role in lashing up the capital investment of an enterprise (turnover value). Developing Approaches of Supply Chain Management Systems of Enterprises in Pakistan †¢ Understand and calculate turnaround value and its benefits by considering the saved investment to be utilized in an additional business opportunity for the same enterprise. †¢ Understand the impact of ABC analysis on Economics Order Quantity (EOC). †¢ Understand the importance and various aspects of oftware utilization for a good inventory management through visibility and traceability of information. †¢ To use jargons of SC and inventory management effectively and confidently while discussing relevant issues in the current enterprise. 301 receives items from the supplier, called the incoming inspection department. Then items go through various phases from a vendor. The targets for incoming inspection are based on acceptance or rejection of the receiving goods. Specifications of the items like standard, grade, dimension, drawing etc. , are given by that particular department‘s program management which require particular components.A conformance report of the product with specifications acts as a base for rejection or acceptance of incoming items. If a regular obsession is bought then it only needs an OEM certificate. 3. 4. Enterprise ‘D’: SC Mechanism at a Research Enterprise Enterprise ‘D’ embraces the Planning and Production Control (PPC) department, logistics, supplier, log warehouse, QC and demand department for completion of its SCM. It adopts a Supplier Quality Management (SQM) system in the enterprise. Its significance concludes: †¢ The enterprise demands very high standards of its products and in-time delivery of the components. Failure of hardware or software in the business can be calamitous. †¢ Implementation of quality system model AS9100 Quality Management System (QMS) for quality assurance in design, development, production and installation. AS9100 QMS is being used for supplier support. For this, the enterprise provides modern equipment and training for its suppliers. AS9100 was formed to bring all of its vendors to one platform for production of a high standard product. SQM system starts with the implementation of the Master Production Schedule (MPS) of the enterprise. It maintains a database of all suppliers for supplier performance analysis.By communication, it makes a confirmation that synchronization exists betw een the production and supplier components, happening at component level by using cards. The components which are falling short or at production line are mentioned by the card. The components at assembly are measured by the operator who accordingly upgrades and passes it to the logistics department, manually or through the ERP system. The logistics department has visibility about components falling short or in excess. It sends orders to its suppliers whether they bring items internationally or locally. How does quality play an important role in SCM?The system not only ensures JIT delivery but also ensures the right quality of product has been delivered. The QMS works for Quality Control (QC), Quality Assurance (QA) and supplier evaluation system. The link to SC is built through the QC department which Figure 8. SCM pyramid for research enterprise. The focus on supplier control in AS9100 QMS machine gives globalization, diversity of regional requirements, challenges of assuring quali ty of products and suppliers throughout the world and intime delivery. Various vendors/ suppliers or tiers are distributed all over the world, so it is very difficult to align them at ne quality level. Figure 8 shows SCM pyramid tiers for this research enterprise. In the current enterprise, tier 1 produces the vehicle, tier 2 concerns in the software development and tier 3 deals with component assembly and so on. Now, how do we assure that all of these tiers are manufacturing products at a quality and attuned with the standards, or according to the pattern given by the organization? For assurance and conformation of the above scenario, we apply the demand-pull logic of JIT theory. For its deployment, multitasking is ensured, various components are being manufactured at various vendors nd they are required for final assembly. MPS is made commune to all vendors. Since the enterprise status is online, all the components are brought in time to final assembly and fabricated and then deli vered to customers. The current enterprise’s MPS is analyzed on the basis of orders, forecasting, and capacity. It depends upon the size of this period and ABC classification of the supplier. The demand planning shows the supplier visibility/ negotiation and the cumulative lead time of the system. The system SC cycle contains the works orders which are issued on the basis of MPS and orders. The job ards play an important role in this scenario. 302 The International Arab Journal of Information Technology, Vol. 5, No. 3, July 2008 for quality, supplier training, seminar/ exhibition, supplier quality audit and supplier improvement strategies. Hence, we conclude adaptation of the most promising innovations enabled by the modern ITenhanced SCM systems. The modelled approach of the SCM system provides a foundation for future experimentation with prospect scenarios and strategies. Acknowledgments Anonymous reviewers are acknowledged. This work was supported by the National Key Techn ology R andD Program of China (Grant No. 2006BAH02A09) and the High Technology R and D Program of China (Grant No. 2006AA04Z165). PhD Scholarship for Mr. Danish Irfan is awarded by COMSATS Institute of Information Technology (CIIT), Pakistan. Figure 9. JIT pull logic for customer demand. References [1] 4. Conclusions Our current exertion demonstrates that SCM can make a huge impact on the enterprise’s bottom line and customer’s satisfaction level. In the enterprise ‘A’ study, the schema needs design enhancement. Alteration of â€Å"lead time† and â€Å"cycle time† is desired to be minimized and optimized further.Enterprise ‘B’ needs to improve the customer relationships. Regional suppliers must be expanded to give a broader scope for its customers and local retailers. Regional suppliers also need JIT interaction with the manufacturer for enhancement of effective SC. In Enterprise ‘C’, we conclude that the SCM structu re can be made easy by categorization of the items, focused lead times for delivery, cost and quality to acquire and develop a sophisticated technological base for enlarging and expansive production of components. Delivery target of the product to customer is scheduled keeping the view main items in our designed SCM.Thus, it also enables managers to reduce their cost through more effective contract negotiations. Concerned managers now can direct that class A items may be reviewed frequently to reduce the average-lot size and to keep their inventory records accurate. In Enterprise ‘D’, SC targets its goals by making demand visibility through an online ERP system. It has compressed time and breaks down barriers for the top management/ leadership of the enterprise. It has also learnt the organization as working together and teamwork brings up an active SC domino effect. The effective SC has also lead the enterprise to break down arriers by efficient communication, initial planning meetings, communication during contract, partnership [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] Tompkins J. , â€Å"Beyond Supply Chain Management,† Supply Chain Management Review, http://www. scmr. com/article/CA629657. html, 2000. Cooper M. , Lambert D. , and Pagh J. , â€Å"Supply Chain Management: More than a New Name for Logistics,† The International Journal of Logistics Management, vol. 8, no. 1, pp. 1-13, 1997. Hurst B. and Jennifer J. , â€Å"A Network Based Methodology to Model Supply Chain Systems,† PhD Thesis, The University of Iowa, 2002. Irfan D. , Xiaofei X. , and Shengchun D. , â€Å"ASCOR Reference Model of the Supply Chain Management System in an Enterprise,† International Arab Journal of Information Technology, vol. 5, no. 3, pp. 292-299, 2008. Saad M. , Jones M. , and James P. , â€Å"A Review of the Progress Towards the Adoption of Supply Chain Management (SCM) Relationships in Construction,† European Journal of Purchasing and Supply Manageme nt, vol. 8, no. 3, pp. 173183, September 2002. Wu J. , Ulieru M. , Cobzaru M. , and Norrie D. , â€Å"Supply Chain Management Systems: State of the Art and Vision,† in Proceedings of the IEEE Conference on Management of Innovation and Technlogy (ICMIT), pp. 59-764, 2000. Danish Irfan is a PhD scholar in School of Computer Science and Engineering at Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin, China PRC. His research interests include data clustering applications, business intelligence, and SCM. Developing Approaches of Supply Chain Management Systems of Enterprises in Pakistan Xu Xiaofei is a professor and dean of School of Computer Science and Engineering at Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin, China PRC. His research interests include computer integrated manufacturing system, database systems, supply chain management, agile virtual enterprises, management nd decision information system, and knowledge engineering. He has published more than 200 academic papers. He is the stand ing member of the Council of China Computer Federation, member of the Expert Group for Discipline of Computer Science and Technology in the Academic Degree Committee of China State Council. 303 Deng Sheng Chun is an associate professor in School of Computer Science and Engineering at Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin, China PRC. His research interests include computer integrated manufacturing system, supply chain management, business intelligence, and data mining applications.